How Rising Heat and Air Pollution Are Reshaping Climate Risk Across Asian Societies

Rising heat and air pollution across Asia are exposing millions of people to growing climate risks, but the burden is falling unevenly, with women, children, older adults, and some workers facing the longest and most intense exposure. A new Asian Development Bank study shows that heat and pollution interact differently across countries, demanding targeted, people-centered climate policies rather than one-size-fits-all solutions.

Across Asia, extreme heat and dirty air are becoming part of everyday life. A new study led by the Asian Development Bank, with researchers from the Population Studies Center at the University of Pennsylvania, shows that these two climate risks are not only getting worse but are also hitting some people much harder than others. Using climate data from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, NASA, and Washington University in St. Louis, the study tracks how heat stress and air pollution have evolved across Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Thailand, and Vietnam over the past three decades.

The key message is simple but worrying: climate change is increasing environmental stress, and exposure is deeply unequal. Where people live, how old they are, and whether they work, or in what kind of job, now strongly shape how much heat they endure and how much polluted air they breathe.

Measuring Heat the Way Humans Feel It

Instead of relying only on air temperature, the researchers use a measure called the Universal Thermal Climate Index, which captures how hot it actually feels to the human body by factoring in humidity, wind, and sunlight. For air pollution, they focus on PM2.5, fine particles small enough to enter the lungs and bloodstream and linked to heart disease, respiratory illness, and early death.

By combining these environmental indicators with detailed census data, the study maps exposure down to the district level and across population groups defined by age, gender, and employment status. This makes it possible to see not just where risks are highest, but who is most exposed, and for how long.

Very Different Country Patterns

The results show that there is no single “Asian” climate story. In Bangladesh, the hottest districts are concentrated in the west and north, while air pollution peaks during cooler winter months, when stagnant air traps pollutants near the ground. Pakistan tells a different story: pollution has increased sharply since 2000, and in many areas, extreme heat and high pollution occur at the same time, creating dangerous double shocks.

Thailand and Vietnam show more moderate national averages, but urban and industrial areas stand out as persistent hotspots. Indonesia is unique again. Its air pollution shows little seasonal pattern and is driven more by peatland fires and climate cycles than by winter weather, resulting in a weaker link between heat and pollution.

These differences matter for policy. They show that heat and pollution do not always rise together, and that local climate, geography, and economic activity shape risk in powerful ways.

Who Faces the Greatest Exposure?

When population characteristics are taken into account, inequalities become clear. In Bangladesh, older people, especially inactive women doing housework, experience the longest exposure to extreme heat. Women across nearly all age groups face higher cumulative heat exposure than men. Air pollution affects almost everyone, but children and older adults are far more likely to be exposed to the worst pollution levels for most of the year.

In Indonesia, exposure patterns shift over time. In 1990, unemployed and inactive people were most exposed to heat, but by 2010, employed workers faced much higher exposure, reflecting rapid urban growth. In Thailand, one of the most alarming findings is that children who are working, especially girls, face some of the most intense and prolonged heat exposure of all. In Vietnam, women consistently experience higher exposure to both heat and air pollution than men, particularly among working-age inactive and elderly groups.

These findings challenge the idea that having a job automatically protects people from climate risk. In many cities, work means long hours outdoors or in poorly ventilated environments, increasing exposure rather than reducing it.

Why This Matters for Policy

Climate adaptation policies that focus only on average conditions or national trends will miss the people most at risk. Heat action plans, early warning systems, labor protections, and access to cooling can save lives in the short term. Over the longer run, investments in heat-resilient housing, green urban spaces, cleaner energy, and stricter air quality controls are essential.

Most importantly, solutions must be targeted. Older adults, women, children, and vulnerable workers need specific protections. Without deliberate action, climate change will continue to deepen existing inequalities, turning heat and pollution into forces that quietly but steadily widen social divides across Asia.