Saudi Arabia’s historic coffee belt faces severe climate damage without precision farming shift

According to the review, Saudi Arabia’s coffee landscape is highly vulnerable to climate trends that are now unfolding across the Arabian Peninsula. Arabica coffee requires stable temperature ranges, reliable rainfall, and moderate humidity to maintain yield and bean quality. The study reports that these conditions are shifting rapidly. Rising temperatures, reduced precipitation, and increased evapotranspiration are already stressing orchards, particularly those planted on traditional terraced slopes where water is scarce.

A new scientific review has found that Saudi Arabia’s Arabica coffee, cultivated for centuries in mountainous regions of the country's southwest, is now facing both biotic and abiotic stress factors that could sharply reduce yields unless precision agriculture technologies are deployed at scale.

The findings are outlined in “The Role of Precision Coffee Farming in Mitigating the Biotic and Abiotic Stresses Related to Climate Change in Saudi Arabia: A Review,” published in Sustainability. The review consolidates scientific evidence from agronomy, climate science, plant pathology, soil management, and digital agriculture to assess how climate change is reshaping coffee production in Jazan, Asir, Al-Baha, and Najran, the regions that anchor the country’s historic coffee belt.

Warming, drought, and new pest threats are already reshaping Saudi coffee farms

According to the review, Saudi Arabia’s coffee landscape is highly vulnerable to climate trends that are now unfolding across the Arabian Peninsula. Arabica coffee requires stable temperature ranges, reliable rainfall, and moderate humidity to maintain yield and bean quality. The study reports that these conditions are shifting rapidly. Rising temperatures, reduced precipitation, and increased evapotranspiration are already stressing orchards, particularly those planted on traditional terraced slopes where water is scarce.

The authors note that drought stress has become one of the most pressing challenges. Many farms rely on limited groundwater or irregular seasonal rains, making them dependent on irrigation systems that are not optimized for water efficiency. Heat waves intensify plant stress, reduce flowering, impair bean filling, and make trees more susceptible to pest attacks and disease outbreaks. Projected warming scenarios suggest that suitable growing zones may continue shrinking, placing pressure on both yield stability and quality consistency.

Alongside environmental change, Saudi coffee farms are confronting a new wave of biotic stress. Pests and diseases long considered minor are increasing in prevalence as warmer temperatures accelerate their life cycles. The review identifies several threats, including berry borers, mealybugs, leaf miners, and fungal diseases such as anthracnose, Fusarium wilt, and coffee leaf rust. The detection of coffee leaf rust in Saudi Arabia, one of the most damaging diseases worldwide, is flagged as a notable warning sign. Its presence indicates conditions are becoming more favorable for pathogens that historically struggled to survive in the dry southwestern climate.

Abiotic pressures are worsening the effects of these biological threats. Excess sunlight increases leaf scorch, while salinity in some soils limits nutrient absorption. Steep terrain restricts mechanization, and aging coffee trees in many orchards are less resilient to shifting climate conditions. Together, these factors form a complex stress environment that requires modern management tools beyond traditional cultivation techniques.

Coffee plays a significant economic and cultural role in Saudi Arabia. National plans to expand domestic production are underway, but climate risks could undermine progress. The authors note that without targeted interventions, productivity may stagnate or decline as conditions become more unpredictable.

Precision agriculture key to climate-resilient Saudi coffee production

To counter these trends, the review calls for a strategic transition toward precision coffee farming, a digital agriculture model that relies on sensors, remote sensing, drones, GIS mapping, IoT systems, variable-rate technologies, and machine-learning tools. According to the analysis, precision agriculture can help Saudi coffee farmers monitor plant stress, optimize water allocation, adjust nutrient inputs, and intervene early against pests and diseases.

The study presents a suite of precision tools that can support climate adaptation. Remote sensing and GIS technologies can map field variability, detect zones of water stress, and monitor canopy temperature over time. IoT networks and wireless sensor systems can track soil moisture, humidity, temperature, and nutrient levels in real time, allowing farmers to adjust irrigation and fertilization with greater accuracy. Machine-learning models can analyze patterns in stress indicators, helping farmers anticipate outbreaks or growth slowdowns before they cause yield loss.

Drones and multispectral imaging systems can support rapid monitoring of terraced orchards, which are often difficult to assess manually due to steep slopes. These platforms can identify nutrient deficiencies, irrigation gaps, or early signs of disease. Decision-support systems built on big-data analytics can incorporate weather forecasts, soil metrics, and plant-health indicators to generate targeted recommendations for each micro-zone within a farm.

On the pest and disease front, the review highlights how image-based detection systems and deep-learning models can identify symptoms earlier than the human eye, enabling faster intervention. Integrated pest-management strategies that combine biological controls, cultural practices, and targeted chemical treatments stand to benefit from precision monitoring systems that guide the timing and dosage of interventions.

The authors also point out the importance of soil fertility management using a combination of organic matter, balanced fertilization, and soil-conditioning practices. Precision technologies can help adjust nutrient plans based on real-time soil data, preventing waste and improving plant tolerance to stress. The application of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and other beneficial microbes can enhance water and nutrient uptake, particularly under drought conditions.

Water management emerges as a top priority in the review. Precision irrigation technologies such as drip systems, soil-moisture-guided watering, and partial root-zone drying can reduce water waste while maintaining plant performance. Smart irrigation controllers can help match water delivery to actual plant demand rather than estimated schedules. These tools are especially critical in Saudi Arabia, where water scarcity is a defining agricultural constraint.

Policy support, investment, and farmer training to scale climate-smart coffee farming

The review calls for coordinated national policies to accelerate adoption. Investment is needed to expand digital agriculture infrastructure, provide incentives for technology uptake, and subsidize precision tools for small and mid-sized farms. Research partnerships between universities, government agencies, and agritech companies could help develop models tailored to local environmental and cultural conditions.

Farmer education is identified as a critical component. Without training, even the most advanced technologies will deliver limited benefits. The authors recommend capacity-building programs focused on interpreting data dashboards, managing IoT systems, and applying precision practices consistently. Extension services, demonstration farms, and digital knowledge platforms could help bridge the skill gap.

The study also highlights the need for region-specific crop models that incorporate local climate projections, soil profiles, pest distributions, and genetic traits of Saudi coffee cultivars. Such models could help forecast future risks and guide long-term planning for expansion or relocation of growing zones. Low-cost sensors, rugged field devices, and mobile apps adapted to mountainous conditions could further improve adoption rates.

Electronic harvesting technologies are also flagged as an area needing attention. Many Saudi coffee farms rely on manual labor due to terrain challenges, which limits productivity and increases vulnerability to labor shortages. The authors note that innovation in terrace-appropriate harvesting tools could strengthen resilience as climate pressures rise