Special Report: Final Frontiers: Conflict, opportunities and regulations in oceans, space, and polar regions

Human ingenuity has allowed us to begin venturing into areas once only conceivable in the realm of science fiction, with the bounties of space, the deep sea, and the polar regions now firmly in our sights.

However, global discussion on how we proceed in these largely unknown settings is nowhere near a consensus.

The rapid development of technology has now allowed plans to explore and harness the fruits of these 'final frontiers', both exciting and alarming the scientific community in equal measure.

They're vast unknowns with the promise of uncovering knowledge and valuable resources, including the potential to crack the case on global issues like climate change and food insecurity.

But plans to proceed must be tempered by caution as those seeking riches cannot forge heedlessly ahead in places we are yet to fully understand.

Ownership, access, and control are already being tested. And in the absence of cohesive global regulation, it may prove to be more a burden than a boon.

Reality check: The ocean covers more than 70 percent of our planet, produces half of the world's oxygen, regulates our climate, weather and supports all living organisms, but the deep sea is one of the least explored areas of our globe.

Deep-sea mining is a relatively new field and the complete consequences of full-scale mining operations are still unknown.

The International Seabed Authority, the global regulator established through the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, is under pressure to finalize regulations regarding the commercialization of deep-sea mining by 2023.

There are roughly 27,000 chunks of space debris larger than 10 centimeters that can cause damage to orbiting satellites. Roughly 8,000 satellites are orbiting the Earth as of the end of 2021. In the next decade, there are plans to launch up to 100,000. The Antarctic Treaty first signed in 1959, but now with 52 signatories, specifically prohibits military and nuclear testing activities in the Antarctic and guarantees continued freedom to conduct scientific research. Mining in Antarctica is banned indefinitely by the Protocol on Environmental Protection (the Madrid Protocol), an agreement that came into force in January 1998. There is a provision for this to be revisited periodically, but it would require the unanimous agreement of all signatories.

Big ideas: Quote attributable to Aline Jaeckel, University of New South Wales ''When discussing how to manage seabed minerals, we need to consider the social implications of seabed mining, including on fish-dependent communities.'' Quote attributable to Phil Williamson, University of East Anglia ''Some [climate interventions] are dangerous, some benign, and some might work in the way intended.'' Quote attributable to Steven Freeland, University of Western Sydney and Bond University ''The absence of appropriate guidelines and regulations for new proposed activities in space would heighten the risk of irresponsible behavior in space, which could lead to irreversible adverse consequences for all of humanity.'' Quote attributable to Igor Levchenko, Nanyang Technical University ''Various industries will look to transfer their technologies to orbit to exploit the advantages of zero gravity, from 3D-printing biological tissues and organs to growing protein crystals for pharmaceuticals.'' Quote attributable to Yelena Yermakova, University of Oslo ''More pandemics, an escalating climate emergency and an increasingly fragmented geopolitical backdrop all lay the path for some troubling scenarios to play out in the Antarctic.'' Perspectives: (Feature articles available for republishing under CC 4.0) TEXT: Equity dilemmas from seabed mining in the Pacific By Aline Jaeckel et al, University of New South Wales Seabed mining can affect fisheries and the flow-on social equity issues need to be addressed.

TEXT: Deep ocean carbon drawdown not an easy climate fix By Phil Williamson, University of East Anglia The deep ocean can be used for carbon dioxide removal from our atmosphere. Here are the opportunities, risks, and constraints TEXT: Diving into the abyss for new medicines By Marcel Jaspars, University of Aberdeen The potential for new pharmaceutical lies in the ocean, but its biodiversity is unprotected and under threat.

TEXT: The problems with space mining no one is talking about By Andrew S. Rivkin, Johns Hopkins University Asteroid mining could unlock untold riches and thorny ethical problems. Are we ready as we race to the launchpad? TEXT: Small satellites taken to the skies By Igor Lenchenko and Shuyan Xu, Nanyang Technological University, and Kateryna Bazaka, Australian National University Processions of small satellites obscuring the sky have provoked the ire of astronomers, but their potential for humanity is enormous.

TEXT: Space junk: what is being done? By Alice Gorman, at Flinders University 23,000 pieces of 'space junk' float in orbit, and almost as many ideas for how to get rid of them are being floated on Earth.

TEXT: Governing space for the benefit of humanity By Steven Freeland, the University of Western Sydney, Bond University Where space begins is more than billionaires brawling over bragging rights. It will have ramifications for governments, economies, and humanity.

TEXT: Antarctica's possible new world order By Yelena Yermakova, University of Oslo and Germana Nicklin, Massey University A group of scientists and other interested parties are asking: Should the Antarctic have its rights?